Los derechos son el segundo componente de las Declaraciones de Derechos. La Historia de su aparición en estos textos es fundamental para la propia Historia del pensamiento político.
En las Declaraciones americanas fueron comunes los derechos de libertad de cultos y de expresión. Ya no fue unánime la aparición de los derechos de reunión, posesión de armas y exención de alojamientos. Más rara es la aparición del derecho de petición, aunque sí aparecen en algunas. Miguel Artola, en el libro citado en otros artículos, nos cuenta que llama la atención que los derechos propios de la Revolución Liberal, como la libertad, la igualdad o la propiedad no se mencionen o si se hace se les cita en un mismo artículo junto con la felicidad. En las Diez Enmiendas de la Constitución no se introducen mas que derechos que antes habían figurado en alguna de las Declaraciones de los Estados.
En las primeras Declaraciones francesas se enunciaron muchos más derechos que en las de América, en línea con un planteamiento más claro de la Revolución Liberal, bajo la trilogía de libertad, igualdad, y propiedad. La libertad se concibe en los movimientos, en la de expresión y en la de petición, es decir, derechos de tipo individual. En relación con sujetos plurales sólo se concibe el derecho de reunión. Después, aparecerán la libertad de cultos y la libertad empresarial.
La igualdad ante la ley se relaciona con la admisibilidad a los empleos y la fiscal, aunque para el primer caso existiría el matiz de la capacidad, y para el segundo el de la proporcionalidad.
Por su parte, la propiedad se especifica como un derecho de carácter individual, inviolable y sagrado.
Es importante precisar que en las Declaraciones francesas se explicaba el significado de cada uno de los derechos; por ejemplo, se decía que la igualdad consistía en que la ley era la misma para todos, tanto cuando protegía como cuando castigaba.
En las primeras Declaraciones se especifica el derecho del ciudadano a participar directamente o a designar representantes que interviniesen en la elaboración de la ley. Luego este derecho se denominó el derecho al sufragio, y en el siglo XX se vuelve a hablar del derecho de participación.
El derecho de asociación es la gran novedad avanzado el siglo XIX.
Después de la I Guerra Mundial será la Constitución de Weimar la que incluya la más extensa y compleja Declaración de Derechos. En ella aparece, claramente, la igualdad entre los sexos, se limita el derecho a la propiedad al vincular este derecho con la utilidad pública, y se reconoce el derecho de los trabajadores a participar en el funcionamiento de las empresas. Esta Declaración tuvo una influencia directa en la Constitución de la II República Española.
La Constiitución de la URSS de 1936 introduce los derechos sociales, y después de la II Guerra Mundial se reconoceran en casi todos los textos constitucionales europeos, incluido el español de 1978.
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viernes, 11 de septiembre de 2009
viernes, 4 de septiembre de 2009
Las primeras enmiendas de la Constituciónd e Estados Unidos
Las primeras enmiendas de la Constitución de Estados Unidos:
Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
Article II. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
Article III. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
Article VII. In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
{Proposal and Ratification: The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States (and two others, one of which failed of ratification and the other which later became the 27th amendment) were proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the First Congress on September 25, 1789. The first ten amendments were ratified by the following States, and the notifications of ratification by the Governors thereof were successively communicated by the President to Congress: New Jersey, November 20, 1789; Maryland, December 19, 1789; North Carolina, December 22, 1789; South Carolina, January 19, 1790; New Hampshire, January 25, 1790; Delaware, January 28, 1790; New York, February 24, 1790; Pennsylvania, March 10, 1790; Rhode Island, June 7, 1790; Vermont, November 3, 1791; and Virginia, December 15, 1791.
Ratification was completed on December 15, 1791. The amendments were subsequently ratified by the legislatures of Massachusetts, March 2, 1939; Georgia, March 18, 1939; and Connecticut, April 19, 1939.}
http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/USA/amendments.html
Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
Article II. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
Article III. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
Article VII. In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
{Proposal and Ratification: The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States (and two others, one of which failed of ratification and the other which later became the 27th amendment) were proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the First Congress on September 25, 1789. The first ten amendments were ratified by the following States, and the notifications of ratification by the Governors thereof were successively communicated by the President to Congress: New Jersey, November 20, 1789; Maryland, December 19, 1789; North Carolina, December 22, 1789; South Carolina, January 19, 1790; New Hampshire, January 25, 1790; Delaware, January 28, 1790; New York, February 24, 1790; Pennsylvania, March 10, 1790; Rhode Island, June 7, 1790; Vermont, November 3, 1791; and Virginia, December 15, 1791.
Ratification was completed on December 15, 1791. The amendments were subsequently ratified by the legislatures of Massachusetts, March 2, 1939; Georgia, March 18, 1939; and Connecticut, April 19, 1939.}
http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/USA/amendments.html
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